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Mountain ranges form due to what type of boundary

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Geological processes that underlie the formation of mountains

Thrust and opposite fault move are an important component of mountain formation.

Illustration of mountains that adult on a fold that thrusted.

Mountain formation refers to the geological processes that underlie the formation of mountains. These processes are associated with large-scale movements of the Earth'south crust (tectonic plates).[1] Folding, faulting, volcanic activity, igneous intrusion and metamorphism can all be parts of the orogenic process of mount building.[2] The formation of mountains is non necessarily related to the geological structures institute on it.[3]

The understanding of specific landscape features in terms of the underlying tectonic processes is called tectonic geomorphology, and the study of geologically young or ongoing processes is called neotectonics.[iv] [ clarification needed ]

From the belatedly 18th century until its replacement by plate tectonics in the 1960s, geosyncline theory was used to explain much mountain-building.[five]

Types of mountains [edit]

In that location are five master types of mountains: volcanic, fold, plateau, fault-block and dome. A more detailed nomenclature useful on a local scale predates plate tectonics and adds to these categories.[6]

Volcanic mountains [edit]

Movements of tectonic plates create volcanoes along the plate boundaries, which erupt and form mountains. A volcanic arc system is a series of volcanoes that class near a subduction zone where the crust of a sinking oceanic plate melts and drags water down with the subducting crust.[9]

Most volcanoes occur in a band encircling the Pacific Ocean (the Pacific Ring of Burn), and in another that extends from the Mediterranean across Asia to bring together the Pacific band in the Indonesian Archipelago. The most important types of volcanic mountain are composite cones or stratovolcanoes (Vesuvius, Kilimanjaro and Mount Fuji are examples) and shield volcanoes (such as Mauna Loa on Hawaii, a hotspot volcano).[10] [11]

A shield volcano has a gently sloping cone due to the low viscosity of the emitted material, primarily basalt. Mauna Loa is the classic instance, with a slope of 4°-half-dozen°. (The relation betwixt slope and viscosity falls under the topic of angle of repose.[12]) The blended volcano or stratovolcano has a more steeply ascension cone (33°-40°),[13] due to the college viscosity of the emitted material, and eruptions are more tearing and less frequent than for shield volcanoes. Besides the examples already mentioned are Mount Shasta, Mount Hood and Mount Rainier.[14] Vitosha - the domed mountain next to Sofia, upper-case letter of Bulgaria, is also formed past volcanic action.

Fold mountains [edit]

When plates collide or undergo subduction (that is – ride ane over another), the plates tend to buckle and fold, forming mountains. Most of the major continental mount ranges are associated with thrusting and folding or orogenesis. Examples are the Balkan Mountains, the Jura and the Zagros mountains.[15]

Block mountains [edit]

Fault-cake mountain of the tilted type.[xvi]

When a error block is raised or tilted, block mountains tin result.[17] Higher blocks are called horsts and troughs are called grabens. A spreading autonomously of the surface causes tensional forces. When the tensional forces are strong plenty to crusade a plate to dissever autonomously, it does so such that a middle block drops down relative to its flanking blocks.

An example of this is the Sierra Nevada Range, where delamination created a block 650 km long and 80 km broad that consists of many individual portions tipped gently west, with east facing slips rising abruptly to produce the highest mountain front in the continental United States.[xviii] [19]

Another good case is the Rila - Rhodope mountain Massif in Bulgaria, Southeast Europe, including the well defined horsts of Belasitsa (linear horst), Rila mountain (vaulted domed shaped horst) and Pirin mountain - a horst forming a massive anticline situated between the complex graben valleys of Struma and that of Mesta.[20] [21] [22]

Uplifted passive margins [edit]

Unlike orogenic mountains there is no widely accepted geophysical model that explains elevated passive continental margins such as the Scandinavian Mountains, Eastern Greenland, the Brazilian Highlands or Australia's Great Dividing Range.[23] [24] Different elevated passive continental margins most likely share the same machinery of uplift. This mechanism is perhaps related to far-field stresses in Earth's lithosphere. According to this view elevated passived margins can be likened to giant anticlinal lithospheric folds, where folding is caused by horizontal compression acting on a thin to thick chaff transition zone (every bit are all passive margins).[25] [26]

Models [edit]

Hotspot volcanoes [edit]

Hotspots are supplied past a magma source in the Earth's mantle called a drapery feather. Although originally attributed to a melting of subducted oceanic crust, contempo evidence belies this connection.[27] The mechanism for plume formation remains a research topic.

Fault blocks [edit]

Several movements of the Earth'due south crust that lead to mountains are associated with faults. These movements actually are amenable to assay that can predict, for instance, the peak of a raised block and the width of an intervening rift between blocks using the rheology of the layers and the forces of isostasy. Early aptitude plate models predicting fractures and fault movements have evolved into today'southward kinematic and flexural models.[28] [29]

See too [edit]

  • 3D fold development
  • Continental standoff – Miracle in which mountains are produced on the boundaries of converging tectonic plates
  • Cycle of erosion
  • Inselberg – Isolated, steep rock hill on relatively flat terrain
  • Orogeny – The formation of mountain ranges
  • Tectonics – Processes that command the construction and properties of the Earth's chaff and its evolution through time
  • Seamount – Mountain rising from the ocean seafloor that does not reach to the h2o's surface

References [edit]

  1. ^ Steven M. Stanley (2004). "Mountain edifice". World system history (2nd ed.). Macmillan. p. 207. ISBN978-0-7167-3907-iv.
  2. ^ Robert J. Twiss; Eldridge M. Moores (1992). "Plate tectonic models of orogenic core zones". Structural Geology (2nd ed.). Macmillan. p. 493. ISBN978-0-7167-2252-half dozen.
  3. ^ Ollier, Cliff; Pain, Colin (2000). The Origin of Mountains . Routledge. p. 1. ISBN978-0-415-19890-5.
  4. ^ Kurt Stüwe (2007). "§iv.5 Geomorphology". Geodynamics of the lithosphere: an introduction (2nd ed.). Springer. p. 178. ISBN978-3-540-71236-7.
  5. ^ "Geosynclinal Theory". publish.illinois.edu. University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. Retrieved March 8, 2018. The major mount-building idea that was supported from the 19th century and into the 20th is the geosynclinal theory.
  6. ^ Andrew Goudie (2004). Encyclopedia of geomorphology; Volume 2. Routledge. p. 701. ISBN978-0-415-32738-1.
  7. ^ NASA - Activity at Kliuchevskoi
  8. ^ Victor Schmidt; William Harbert (2003). Planet Globe and the New Geoscience (fourth ed.). Kendall Hunt. pp. 46–47. ISBN978-0-7872-9355-0.
  9. ^ Stephen D Butz (2004). "Chapter viii: Plate tectonics". Science of Globe Systems. Thompson/Delmar Learning. p. 136. ISBN978-0-7668-3391-3.
  10. ^ John Gerrard (1990). "Types of volcano". Mountain environments: an examination of the concrete geography of mountains. MIT Press. p. 194. ISBN978-0-262-07128-4.
  11. ^ Robert Wayne Decker; Barbara Decker (2005). "Chapter eight: Hot spots". Volcanoes (quaternary ed.). Macmillan. p. 113 ff. ISBN978-0-7167-8929-1.
  12. ^ Arthur Holmes; Donald Duff (2004). Holmes Principles of Concrete Geology (fourth ed.). Taylor & Francis. p. 209. ISBN978-0-7487-4381-0.
  13. ^ Transactions of the American Society of Civil Engineers, Book 39. American Society of Ceremonious Engineers. 1898. p. 62.
  14. ^ James Shipman; Jerry D. Wilson; Aaron Todd (2007). "Minerals, rocks and volcanoes". An Introduction to Physical Science (12th ed.). Cengage Learning. p. 650. ISBN978-0-618-93596-3.
  15. ^ Michael P Searle (2007). "Diagnostic features and processes in the construction and evolution of Oman-, Zagros-, Himalayan-, Karakoram-, and Tibetan blazon orogenic belts". In Robert D Hatcher Jr.; MP Carlson; JH McBride & JR Martinez Catalán (eds.). 4-D framework of continental crust. Geological Club of America. p. 41 ff. ISBN978-0-8137-1200-0.
  16. ^ Chris C. Park (2001). "Figure 6.11". The environs: principles and applications (2nd ed.). Routledge. p. 160. ISBN978-0-415-21770-5.
  17. ^ Scott Ryan (2006). "Figure thirteen-1". CliffsQuickReview Earth Science. Wiley. ISBN978-0-471-78937-six.
  18. ^ John Gerrard (1990-04-12). Reference cited. p. 9. ISBN978-0-262-07128-four.
  19. ^ Lee, C.-T.; Yin, Q; Rudnick, RL; Chesley, JT; Jacobsen, SB (2000). "Osmium Isotopic Evidence for Mesozoic Removal of Lithospheric Drapery Below the Sierra Nevada, California" (PDF). Scientific discipline. 289 (5486): 1912–6. Bibcode:2000Sci...289.1912L. doi:x.1126/science.289.5486.1912. PMID 10988067. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-06-15.
  20. ^ Мичев (Michev), Николай (Nikolay); Михайлов (Mihaylov), Цветко (Tsvetko); Вапцаров (Vaptsarov), Иван (Ivan); Кираджиев (Kiradzhiev), Светлин (Svetlin) (1980). Географски речник на България [Geographic Dictionary of Republic of bulgaria] (in Bulgarian). Sofia: Наука и култура (Nauka i kultura). p. 368.
  21. ^ Димитрова (Dimitrova), Людмила (Lyudmila) (2004). Национален парк "Пирин". План за управление [Pirin National Park. Management Plan] (in Bulgarian). и колектив. Sofia: Ministry building of Environment and Water, Bulgarian Foundation "Biodiversity". p. 53.
  22. ^ Дончев (Donchev), Дончо (Doncho); Каракашев (Karakashev), Христо (Hristo) (2004). Теми по физическа и социално-икономическа география на България [Topics on Concrete and Social-Economic Geography of Bulgaria] (in Bulgarian). Sofia: Ciela. pp. 128–129. ISBN954-649-717-7.
  23. ^ Bonow, Johan M. (2009). "atlantens kustberg och högslätter – gamla eller unga?" (PDF). www.geografitorget.se (in Swedish). Geografilärarnas Riksförening.
  24. ^ Green, Paul F.; Lidmar-Bergström, Karna; Japsen, Peter; Bonow, Johan Yard.; Chalmers, James A. (2013). "Stratigraphic landscape analysis, thermochronology and the episodic development of elevated, passive continental margins". Geological Survey of Kingdom of denmark and Greenland Bulletin. 30: xviii. doi:10.34194/geusb.v30.4673.
  25. ^ Japsen, Peter; Chalmers, James A.; Light-green, Paul F.; Bonow, Johan K. (2012). "Elevated, passive continental margins: Not rift shoulders, only expressions of episodic, mail service-rift burial and exhumation". Global and Planetary Modify. ninety–91: 73–86. Bibcode:2012GPC....ninety...73J. doi:ten.1016/j.gloplacha.2011.05.004.
  26. ^ Løseth and Hendriksen 2005
  27. ^ Y Niu & MJ O'Hara (2004). "Affiliate vii: Curtain plumes are Not from ancient oceanic crust". In Roger Hékinian; Peter Stoffers & Jean-Louis Cheminée (eds.). Oceanic hotspots: intraplate submarine magmatism and tectonism. Springer. p. 239 ff. ISBN978-3-540-40859-8.
  28. ^ AB Watts (2001). "§vii.2 Extensional tectonics and rifting". Isostasy and flexure of the lithosphere. Cambridge Academy Press. p. 295. ISBN978-0-521-00600-2.
  29. ^ GD Karner & NW Driscoll (1999). "Mode, timing and distribution of tectonic deformation across the Exmouth Plateau, northwest Australia, determined from stratal architecture and quantitative basin modelling". In Conall Mac Niocaill & Paul Desmond Ryan (eds.). Continental tectonics. Geological society. p. 280. ISBN978-1-86239-051-5.

External links [edit]

  • NASA Goddard Planetary Geodynamics Laboratory
  • NASA Goddard Planetary Geodynamics Laboratory: Volcanology Research
  • Rotating world showing areas of convulsion activity

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mountain_formation

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